Background
British Colonial Rule: Prior to 1937, India was under British colonial rule. The Indian National Congress had been advocating for greater political representation and autonomy for Indians within the colonial framework.
Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms: In 1919, the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms were introduced by the British, which increased the involvement of Indians in legislative councils at the provincial and central levels. However, these reforms fell short of the Congress's demands for full self-governance.
Civil Disobedience Movement: In the 1920s, Mahatma Gandhi launched various nonviolent protests and the Civil Disobedience Movement to push for full independence (Swaraj) and challenge British authority. These movements marked significant stages in India's struggle for freedom.
Round Table Conferences: In the early 1930s, several Round Table Conferences were held in London to discuss constitutional reforms and India's future political structure. However, these conferences didn't result in substantial progress.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact: In 1931, the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed, leading to the suspension of the Civil Disobedience Movement. As a result, some political prisoners were released, and the Congress agreed to participate in the Second Round Table Conference.
Government of India Act 1935: This Act was a response to the growing demand for increased self-governance. It established provincial autonomy and increased the power of Indian provinces. Provincial elections were held in 1937 based on this Act.
In the provincial elections of 1937, the Congress achieved significant success by winning a majority of seats in several provinces, including Uttar Pradesh, Madras, Bombay, Bihar, Central Provinces, and Orissa. This marked the beginning of Congress rule in these provinces.
The Congress received such overwhelming support that Jawaharlal Nehru believed it was their duty to take office. Once he had received assurance from the Viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, that the Provincial Governors would not use their special powers to interfere in provincial governments, the Congress members took up their seats and formed cabinets in eight provinces.
During their rule, the Congress governments implemented various social and economic reforms, including land reforms, expansion of educational opportunities, and efforts to uplift marginalized sections of society. However, this period was also marked by conflicts and challenges, both within the Congress party and with other political groups, including the All-India Muslim League.
Congress Rule for the Muslim League
Following the elections, the Congress displayed a dismissive attitude towards the Muslim League. In regions where the Muslim League had secured the largest share of seats, the Congress declined to collaborate. In provinces where Muslims held a majority, the Congress conceded to Muslims taking charge of the government only if they were not affiliated with the League. However, the most detrimental aspect for Muslims was the Congress's conviction that it represented the entirety of India and possessed the authority to enact various measures. The implementation of these measures demonstrated the accuracy of Jinnah's (RA) warnings during the election campaign about the perils of Congress rule. Subsequently, Congress leaders introduced a series of policies that posed a threat to Muslim culture and identity.
Congress' Approach and Policies
During its tenure, the Congress demonstrated a distinct pro-Hindu orientation, focusing primarily on the advancement of Hindu interests. The twenty-seven months of Congress rule were deeply distressing for Muslims in India, akin to a nightmarish period. Certain Congress leaders even voiced intentions to seek retribution from Muslims, echoing sentiments related to centuries of historical subjugation.
National Language: Upon assuming power in July 1937, the Congress declared Hindi as the national language and adopted the Deva Nagri script as the official writing system.
Introduction of a Three-Color Flag: The Congress proclaimed its intention to hoist a tricolored flag alongside the British flag, symbolizing its emergence as the sole authority in India after the British colonial rulers.
Bande Mataram: The song "Bande Mataram," derived from Bankim Chandra Chatterji's novel "Ananda Math," had nationalistic Hindu undertones, advocating the removal of Muslims from Hindustan. This song, praising Goddess Durga, contained derogatory references to Muslims and demeaned Islam. Although not an official Congress policy, its compulsory recitation at the commencement of official proceedings in provincial assemblies caused concern and offense among Muslims.
Widdia Mandir Scheme: The Widdia Mandir Scheme targeted Muslims and non-Hindus, introduced within educational institutions. Under this initiative, students were compelled to engage in Hindu worship practices. Congress member Dr. Zakir Hussain was associated with this scheme, which included the mandatory veneration of Gandhi's image and recitation of hymns in his honor. The scheme was devised with the aim of diverting the younger generation's attention away from Islam.
The Wardha Scheme: The Wardha Scheme, inspired by Gandhi's perspectives, was incorporated into all Congress-led educational ministries. It emphasized teaching in Hindi and the manual spinning of cotton, while excluding religious education from the curriculum. Students were required to bow before a portrait of Gandhi in their schools. Young learners were educated about Hindu heroes, who were portrayed as antagonists of Muslims. Muslims perceived these measures as efforts to undermine Islamic affinity among their children, potentially leading to their conversion to Hinduism. Hindi gained prominence over Urdu in this scheme.
Muslim-Mass Contact Campaign:
Initiated by the Congress, the Muslim-Mass Contact Campaign aimed to divert attention from the Muslim League. Prominent Congress leaders engaged with influential figures in the Muslim community, using various incentives to entice their return to the Congress fold. The primary objective was to undermine the Muslim League's popularity within the Muslim community and weaken its political influence. The campaign was orchestrated as a strategy to diminish the Muslim League's prominence.
Perceived Congress Tyranny:
While not an officially declared Congress policy, Muslims harbored concerns that their Hindu counterparts sought to obliterate Muslim culture. Instances of appalling behavior by Hindu extremists were witnessed in some areas. Muslims were prohibited from consuming beef and faced severe penalties if they slaughtered cows. The call to prayer (Azaan) was prohibited, and attacks on mosques were reported. Disruptive processions were organized near mosques during prayer times, and there were instances of pigs being introduced into mosque premises. Muslims believed that authorities consistently ruled against them if they lodged complaints. Periodic anti-Muslim riots led to physical attacks, destruction of Muslim property, and arson. Even the Viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, acknowledged instances of ongoing oppression, though often on a small scale. While not universally prevalent, when considered alongside other Congress policies, these incidents contribute to the perception among many Muslims that the period from 1937 to 1939 marked a period of 'Congress Tyranny'.
This period of Congress rule witnessed policies and actions that deepened the divide between communities and raised concerns about the safeguarding of cultural and religious identities. The implications of these policies played a role in shaping the perceptions and apprehensions of Muslims during that time.
Progress in the Muslim League under the Congress Rule
Following the 1937 elections, Jinnah (RA) proposed the formation of Congress-League coalition ministries in several provinces, but these efforts didn't materialize due to lack of agreement. Jinnah (RA) redirected his focus to alert Muslims about the need for organized resistance against Congress's aspirations to establish a "Hindustan."
At the Lucknow meeting of the Muslim League in October 1937, Jinnah (RA) successfully advocated for the party to strengthen its grassroots support. He highlighted that areas where local Muslim League branches were established before 1937 had achieved electoral victories.
Jinnah (RA)'s efforts to revitalize the party soon yielded results. The chief ministers of Assam, Bengal, and Punjab formally aligned themselves with the Muslim League. By mid-1938, the membership of the party had witnessed a substantial surge.
The Congress acknowledged the growing importance of the Muslim League, leading to discussions between Nehru and Jinnah (RA). However, Congress declined to fulfill Jinnah (RA)'s demand that the expanding Muslim League be recognized as the exclusive representative of the Muslim community.
By 1939, Hindu-Muslim relations had significantly deteriorated. Nevertheless, the British government's immediate priorities shifted as they entered a state of war with Germany in September 1939.
During this period, while the Muslim League faced challenges and tensions with the Congress, it also managed to consolidate its support base and strengthen its presence within the political landscape of India. These developments laid the groundwork for the League's future role in shaping the destiny of the subcontinent.
The Conclusion of Congress Rule:
With the outbreak of the Second World War on September 3, 1939, the British government declared that India was also at war with Nazi Germany. Lord Linlithgow, the Viceroy, appealed for the assistance of all Indian political parties in this critical time. However, Congress raised objections to this announcement, insisting that if India were to engage in the war effort, it could only do so under the condition of a firm commitment to complete independence. The British government declined to grant this demand, instead offering Dominion status for India once the war concluded.
The Congress rejected this proposition from the government. In protest, Congress-led provincial governments resigned from their positions. Before stepping down, Congress passed a resolution that expressed its strong opposition to Nazism and Fascism, while supporting the British cause. Nonetheless, Congress emphasized that it could not extend support to Britain without an assurance of independence.
Similarly, the Muslim League also presented its own set of demands before committing to support the British war effort. Jinnah (RA) outlined these demands:
An end to the anti-Muslim policies of the Congress.
Repeal of laws that negatively impacted Muslims.
Formation of coalition governments involving the Congress in the provinces.
Both the British government and the Congress rejected these demands, leading to the Muslim League's inability to offer its support to the British cause. However, it was significant to note that the Muslim League disapproved of Nazism and Fascism as well.
These events marked a critical turning point, as India's political landscape became entwined with the global conflict. The refusal of both Congress and the Muslim League to extend their full support without guarantees of their respective demands set the stage for further political developments during and after the wartime period.
The Day of Deliverance:
When the Congress ministers resigned from their positions, Muslims felt a sense of relief and happiness. The departure of the Congress from power meant an end to what they saw as oppressive acts and injustices. It signaled a reprieve for Islam, Muslim education, and the political prospects of Muslims. This change was regarded as a protective shield for their faith and identity.
The Muslim community's relief was so profound that they rallied behind Jinnah (RA)'s call to commemorate December 22, 1939, as the 'Day of Deliverance'. This day marked the end of Congress Rule, and Muslims celebrated it with immense enthusiasm. They expressed their gratitude to Allah Almighty for liberating them from what they viewed as the tyrannical grasp of Congress. The celebrations were accompanied by spirited gatherings, and expressions of thanksgiving prayers were offered.
This celebration of the 'Day of Deliverance' carried great significance for Muslims, as it symbolized their emergence from what they perceived as a period of Congress tyranny. The contrast between the Congress's policies and the newfound freedom from them was a source of immense joy.
In response, the Congress was displeased by this celebration. Nehru remarked on the divergence of viewpoints between Congress and the League, suggesting that they were now finding common ground on very few matters. The 'Day of Deliverance' event illustrated the deep-seated divide between the Congress and the Muslim League, emphasizing the complexities of the political landscape during that time.
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